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Ray Cashman, Center for Folklore Studies

October 19, 2011

How did the holiday of Halloween develop?

Halloween in its contemporary American form is the result of several influences – English, Scottish, German and (surprising to some) Mexican – but it derives primarily from Celtic and, more specifically, Irish belief and custom. Irish immigration to the US spiked during and after the Potato Famine of the 1840s, and these immigrants brought with them several practices that are familiar today – masking, ghost stories, trick-or-treating, lighting bonfires and carving Jack-o-lanterns (though in the Old World, lacking pumpkins, they used large turnips).

The first thing to appreciate is where Halloween falls in the yearly cycle of an agrarian society. The end of October is also the end of the harvest and, in northern latitudes, the beginning of the considerably darker half of the year. In pre-Christian Ireland, Halloween was known as Samhain (pronounced “sow-in,” meaning “end of summer”) and was known as a time when the thresholds between this world and the Otherworld were open wide. From the Otherworld poured forth the souls of departed loved ones, fairies, the dallachán (the precursor of our headless horseman) and the púca (a phantom in the form of a pig or horse who urinated on fruits and grains not yet harvested). Everyone traveling at night, especially women and those considered to be the best and brightest in the community, were believed to be fair game for abduction or “sweeping” by the fairies. At the same time, it was possible to recover anyone who had been swept in the previous year. The bean sí (banshee) wandered the night, and anyone sitting on a graveyard wall, especially at midnight, could hear her call out the names of those destined to die in the new year.

Contact with the Otherworld was not always frightening or dangerous, however, and the visitation by the souls of departed relatives was quite welcome. The living prepared their homes for the return of their ancestral dead by leaving doors unbolted, lighting a candle for each soul departed from the family, sweeping the hearth clean and leaving food and water out.

Are there any traditional practices that arose from the development of Halloween?

Perhaps the most widespread practice at Samain, in pre-Christian and Christian times, was divination. Most divination games predicted future fortune, vocations and marital status. Marriage divination was the most popular. In one custom, two grains of wheat representing a certain couple were placed over a fire in pan or shovel. If the grains burned to ash without bursting, the couple would live happily together, and if otherwise, the couple would constantly bicker and fight. There were numerous methods for divining the identity of one’s future spouse. A woman who combed her hair or skinned an apple in front of a mirror could catch a glimpse of her future husband behind her. However light-hearted these marriage divinations were, death was always around the corner at Samain, itself the death of summer, and there was always the possibility of seeing through a divination not the future spouse but a coffin or some other image of death.

Where do we get the saying ‘Trick-or-Treat?’

Trick-or-treating has its origins in the practice of roving bands of disguised youths impersonating ghosts and frightening passers by. These bands also demanded contributions for their Halloween feast, and if no contribution was made, the rovers resorted to pranks such as taking the wheels off carts, uprooting gardens, blocking chimneys and blowing smoke through keyholes. In addition to the blurring of boundaries between past, present and future and between this world and the next, Samain was a time to let loose and venture beyond the pale of ordered, social behavior, a theme that continues today.

Christopher Hill, Physics

October 5, 2011

What is the OPERA experiment and what is all the excitement about superluminal neutrinos?

Neutrinos are nearly massless, nearly non-interacting, fundamental particles. OPERA stands for Oscillation Project with Emulsion tRacking Apparatus. It is a collaboration of physicists who are performing an experiment designed to measure the appearance of one type of neutrino (tau) by oscillation from another type of neutrino (muon). This can only occur if neutrinos have mass (which other experiments have shown to be true), and if they are given a long enough distance over which to oscillate. In this case their creation as muon neutrinos comes from proton collisions at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. They then pass through the earth to an underground lab in Italy called Gran Sasso that is far enough away (730 km) for this oscillation to have occurred. A side product of the experiment was to measure the time it took to get from one place to the other. This was expected to confirm that they were going infinitesimally slower than the speed of light. But what they actually measured was the other way around: The neutrinos arrived 60 billionths of a second early! They were apparently traveling 0.025 percent faster than the nominal speed of light, i.e., superluminal.

What does a potential discovery of a faster-than-light particle mean for the physics community?

Ever since 1905, when Einstein published his seminal paper on the special theory of relativity, an enormous amount of experimental evidence has been accumulated that corroborates his notion that nature has a speed limit, namely that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light in vacuum. Moreover, the only things that can, even in principle, travel at the speed of light are massless particles (like the photons that comprise light itself). So the observation that the OPERA experiment is reporting, that particles with a non-zero mass (neutrinos) are apparently breaking nature’s speed limit, is potentially revolutionary. In order to explain the phenomena, our basic notions of matter, space and time would likely have to change — from a modification to special relativity or modification of space-time. In any case, if confirmed (and it is appropriate to stress that this is a big “if”) this would almost certainly be the most significant discovery in fundamental physics in the last 100 years.

How would the OPERA result change how physics is currently viewed/approached? Why is there so much disbelief that this could be viable?

The OPERA measurement will affect current research because of the need for confirmation (or refutation) as soon as possible. Fortunately, there are other laboratories around the world that can produce similar neutrino beams to those originating from CERN. In the US, Fermilab in Batavia, Ill., has such a beam and several existing neutrino experiments. Some of this research effort will undoubtedly be redirected towards neutrino velocity measurements.

Both the distance and time-of-flight determinations that were used in the OPERA result are very precise measurements, so the techniques are adequate to establish a statistically significant deviation from the nominal speed of light. Most disbelief in the result does not concern its precision but rather its accuracy, i.e., is there perhaps a systematic uncertainty (e.g., a bias) in their experimental method that is causing the 60 nanosecond difference rather than it being due to superluminal transit. In this regard I think the physics community is being appropriately skeptical. As Carl Sagan said, “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.”

Eugene Braig, Ohio Sea Grant

September 21, 2011

What are harmful algal blooms and why are they harmful?

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are so named because many produce toxins that can cause illness or irritation — sometimes even death — in pets, livestock and humans. An algal bloom is an abundant or excessive growth of algae. Most HABs are caused by planktonic bacteria, which suspend in the water and rely on currents to move them. The term “algal” is a little misleading in this context because the organisms that normally make up HABs are actually cyanobacteria, which are commonly referred to as “blue-green algae” but are not true algae.

Like plants and true algae, cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll, which captures sunlight to photosynthesize sugars for energy. Aquatic plant and algae growth requires nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, from the water or sediment. Unlike most plants and true algae, many cyanobacteria are able to pull and use (or fix) nitrogen from the atmosphere.

Cyanobacteria can be distributed throughout the water, or they can float to form scums on or near the surface. The cells of many cyanobacteria species grow together in colonies. Blooms can look like slicks of opaque, bright green paint, but closer inspection often reveals the grainy appearance of individual colonies. While most HABs in Ohio will appear greenish or sometimes black, cyanobacterial blooms can have a wide variety of appearances and colors.

How do they affect humans, and what are the risks?

Harmful algal blooms can cause taste and odor problems in drinking water, pollute beaches with scum, reduce oxygen levels for fish and other animals, cause treatment problems for public water supplies and generate toxic chemicals. HABs cause a range of problems for recreation and the environment, but at their worst they cause health problems because they produce toxins.

Human illnesses — sometimes even acute, severe illnesses — are often attributed to HABs, and several deaths in Brazil were associated with a contaminated water supply being used for dialysis in 1996, but there has never been a modern documented case of human death from the ingestion of cyanotoxins.

The Ohio Environmental Protection Agency monitors our surface waters for potential HABs, and they have implemented a new response strategy to protect public health. In general, people should avoid contact with waters that have HAB advisories posted or anywhere the water is green, has a floating algal scum or is generally discolored. When in doubt, stay out! Rinse yourself, family and pets after swimming in natural waters, and do not drink or cook with lake or pond water. Boiling will not eliminate cyanotoxins. If anyone becomes ill after swimming, seek medical attention immediately.

What can be done to eliminate the blooms from local lakes and water sources?

Total elimination is not practical. Many HAB-forming organisms are native to Ohio and actually should occur in our waters in low abundances. Many only come to cause problems when environmental conditions — often human-induced conditions — favor them. Reducing runoff and the input of nutrients, especially phosphorus, to surface waters can minimize problem blooms. Use lawn and plant fertilizers sparingly; do not over-fertilize or over-water after applying fertilizer. If possible, use phosphorus-free fertilizers. Prevent surface runoff from agricultural and livestock areas. Maintain septic systems; improperly working systems can cause nutrient loading to nearby waters. Maintain native plants along shorelines and in as much of the watershed as possible; plants are excellent filters of nutrients and are essentially maintenance-free.

Michael Stamatikos, Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics

August 10, 2011

Why has the Space Shuttle program ended?

After a record of 30 years and 135 missions, the Space Shuttle program ended when the wheels of the Atlantis orbiter rolled to a stop at  5:57 AM EDT on July 21 — six hours after the 42nd anniversary of Armstrong’s “giant leap” on the moon. This decision was a consequence of the Bush Administration’s aspiration to return humans to the moon in 2020. The resulting Constellation Program was conditionally funded on retiring the Space Shuttle in 2010 and decommissioning the International Space Station (ISS) in 2015.

In 2010, Obama cancelled Constellation, postponed Space Shuttle retirement until 2011 and extended the ISS until 2020.

What is the Space Shuttle’s legacy?

As humanity’s first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle’s legacy will endure through the synergy of human and robotic exploration, as demonstrated by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the recent completion of ISS construction. Five crucial astronaut repair missions enabled HST to expand our knowledge of the cosmos, while the unique microgravity and radiation environment aboard the ISS affords an interdisciplinary scientific research laboratory with both terrestrial and space-based applications.

What is the future of human space exploration?

NASA has delegated low Earth orbit transport of crew and cargo to the private sector via the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program to pursue human exploration of deep space for the first time since 1972.

COTS will ferry ISS cargo using companies such as SpaceX by next year. Given the inherent risk, which has historically resulted in tragedy every generation, the timeline for commercial crew transport remains uncertain; in 2012, ISS crew transport will rely on Russia’s Soyuz at the cost of about $50 million per astronaut.

Although the “Orion” multi-purpose crew vehicle has been salvaged from Constellation, we currently have no official heavy-lift space launch system design; no launch date, though it is speculated to be close to the end of this decade; or destination, with flexible options including nearby asteroids (by about 2025), the moon and Mars (about 2035).

Mars could be the next frontier given its paramount scientific value and cost sharing potential amongst international partners, using the ISS paradigm. Intermediate missions to the moon and ISS studies throughout the next decade would help test the logistics and physiological effects of extended human space travel. It also provides a response to a rising Chinese geopolitical presence, which includes plans for a lunar rover (2013), space station (2020) and manned lunar mission (2025).

Ultimately, our future as a space-faring nation depends upon a compelling narrative with sustained bipartisan support — an archaic relic extant only within the nostalgia of the Apollo era.

For a panel discussion regarding the future of space exploration, see streamwww.classroom.ohio-state.edu/flash/baird/13208-1.

Megan Troyer, manager of the Digital Union’s Learning Collaboration Studio

July 13, 2011

What is a SMART Podium Interactive Pen Display?

SMART is a brand name for a line of Interactive White Board products, one of which is a replacement screen for the podium computer in a classroom. Each device has a stylus attached that allows you to interact with the computer. The pen can completely replace the mouse as a means of launching programs and navigating PowerPoint, websites or any other application on the computer.

The Podium also has a series of buttons that allow the user to change the functionality of the stylus from a mouse to a red, black or blue pen or an eraser. In most applications, SMART software will add a “Digital Ink Layer” to the screen. Think of this like a transparency on an overhead projector that allows you to annotate right on top of whatever content is being displayed on the computer screen.

More advanced software comes with the SMART Podium.  SMART has a plug-in for many common applications such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint and Adobe Acrobat that allows the annotations to be embedded directly into the application.

Additionally, SMART Notebook software is a PowerPoint replacement that allows the presenter the use of some sophisticated tools including handwriting recognition or the use of a “Magic Pen” that can spotlight a section of a slide or zoom in on a piece of an image.

What are the benefits to faculty and students?

If a student in class asks a particularly apt question that is not covered in the prepared lecture materials, the presenter can quickly add the topic to that day’s lecture notes. Faculty can benefit by saving the notes they take on their slides each class for iterative improvement of the presentation materials from quarter to quarter. Instructors can solve out problems without need for a chalkboard, whiteboard or overhead projector; take notes on a lively discussion; or draw attention to details on a piece of artwork — all of which can be preserved for future use.

Students don’t suffer from eyestrain reading chalkboards.  Additionally, students can benefit if the instructor saves the notes and provides them to students after class, allowing the students to concentrate on the message of the lecture versus verbatim note taking, and they can participate in more active discussion.

Where are they located and how do I learn more?

There are currently six pool classrooms equipped with SMART Podium devices: CC 311, EA 160, EA 170, IH 100 and HI 131, plus one centrally managed innovative learning space, called the Learning Collaboration Studio in SEL 060. Many other departments including Chemistry and the University Libraries have SMART Podium devices available to their instructors. Training is available on demand or in small groups through the Digital Union, digitalunion@osu.edu or 292-2793.

Peter Mohler, director of Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute

June 15, 2011

How does the heart beat?

The heart is a remarkable organ that functions as a large pump to provide nutrients to the cells (over 10 trillion!) throughout our bodies. The average human heart rate is between 60-80 beats per minute. This translates to approximately 2 1/2 billion beats over the course of a human life, with little to no margin for error. The human heart has four different chambers that are tightly synchronized to pump precise amounts of blood at exact time intervals. The upper two heart chambers (right and left atria) help fill the lower two larger chambers (right and left ventricle) with blood, and the ventricles, in turn, circulate blood throughout the body. Similar to the wires in the walls of your house, the heart has an intricate electrical network that not only synchronizes the contraction of the different chambers of the heart, but also the overall rate of the heart. The intrinsic rate of the heart is controlled by a small bundle of cells located in the right atrium termed the sinoatrial node. This “pacemaker” region initiates the contraction of the atria. Following activation of the pacemaker cells, electrical signals travel to the atrioventricular node, or the “AV node” that is located between the atria and the ventricles and acts as a “gatekeeper” to control the speed of electrical conduction throughout the heart. Finally, a group of specialized electrical cables termed the His-Purkinje Network is activated, resulting in the rapid spread of electrical signals throughout the ventricles, ultimately leading to activation and synchronous contraction of the ventricular cardiomyocytes allowing the heart to pump blood.

What is a cardiac arrhythmia?

A cardiac arrhythmia is a defect in either the heart rate (how many times the heart contracts each minute) or the heart rhythm (the pattern in which regions of the heart are activated). While we often hear of arrhythmias where the heart contracts too quickly (termed “tachycardia”), arrhythmias also are associated with reduced heart rate (termed “bradycardia”). Notably, arrhythmias are not always associated with simply the speed of the heart. Extra beats or even missing beats may also be associated with arrhythmia. While arrhythmias can be harmless, prolonged arrhythmia may result in decreased blood flow throughout the body, resulting in damage to the heart and brain. In some cases, cardiac arrhythmias may even be fatal.

Is there active research into cardiac arrhythmia?

Ohio State is a national leader in human arrhythmia research. The OSU Ross Heart Hospital has dedicated physicians, specifically trained in the detection and treatment of both common and rare forms of human arrhythmia. Additionally, teams of translational and basic scientists work each day at The Dorothy M. Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute (DHLRI) to identify and solve the molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for these potentially fatal events. In fact, current collaborative efforts of Raul Weiss in the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Amy Sturm in the Division of Human Genetics and our research group in the DHLRI are actively pushing to define new cellular pathways responsible for rare but severe forms of human arrhythmia.

Paul Martini, Department of Astronomy

June 2, 2011

What is a black hole?

A black hole is an object whose gravitational pull is so strong that not even light can escape. The black hole’s event horizon describes the boundary where the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light, which is more than 2,500 times faster than the escape velocity from the surface of the Earth. Nothing can escape from inside the event horizon because nothing can exceed the speed of light. This is why a black hole is “black” and how the event horizon gets its name — we are unable to see events beyond this horizon. To create such a strong gravitational pull requires an enormous amount of mass in a very small area. For example, if one could squeeze the entire mass of the sun into a region the size of OSU’s main campus, this would create a black hole. I do not recommend trying this.

How do we know black holes exist?

Black holes can not be detected directly because nothing can escape from the event horizon. We only know that black holes exist because of their gravitational pull on other objects, such as stars and gas in their immediate vicinity. Some of the best evidence for black holes in our galaxy comes from the extremely rapid orbital motions of stars around points in space where we see absolutely nothing, yet these motions imply the presence of such a massive object it could only be a very bright star or a black hole. The earliest evidence that black holes exist came from the discovery of quasars in the 1960s. These objects emit more light than a trillion suns from a region the size of our Solar System. The only viable explanation for this enormous emission is the release of energy as interstellar gas falls into a black hole.

Are there any new developments in the research of black holes?

One of the fundamental characteristics of black holes is that they are such simple objects that they can be completely described with only three numbers: their mass, their spin and their electric charge. This is called the “no hair” theorem, as it states that black holes are free of complicated properties like hair (and ears, eyes, etc.). While black hole masses have been estimated for well over a decade, an exciting new development is that there are now spin estimates for many black holes in our galaxy. These estimates are derived from temperature measurements with X-ray telescopes of the hottest gas orbiting around the black hole. Based on Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, we expect that the faster a black hole is spinning, the further out the innermost stable orbit for this gas will be, and consequently the lower its temperature. These spin estimates are really interesting because they tell us about how black holes continue to grow with time, as well as give us new insights into how they may have formed from the collapse of an extremely massive star.

Joe Heimlich, School of Environment and Natural Resources

May 18, 2011

What is composting and how does it work?

Composting is the biological decomposition of organic material; people taking a natural process and manipulating it. In the woods, a leaf will decompose in about five years. We want to shorten that time to a few weeks or a few months. Composting can be anaerobic (without air) or aerobic (with air). When composting food waste, aerobic is preferable as to avoid order, insect and vermin problems. For yard composting, three ingredients are needed: 1) organic materials, carbon (brown) and nitrogen (green) products; 2) oxygen; and 3) moisture.

Aerobic (hot) composting needs to be over 128° for 4-5 days to kill most weed seeds. To achieve this temperature, the compost pile needs the correct mix of ingredients. Volume for a backyard system should be about 3’ x 3’ x 3’ (a cubic yard). Commercial systems use windrows of material that can exceed 12’ high and 15’ across. Anything much larger than 4 cubic feet makes the pile extremely difficult to turn (that is the very sad voice of experience). The mixture needs around 50 percent air by volume — which is why it’s turned or fluffed — and about 20 percent water. Two simple tests: For air, you should be able to slide your fist/arm into the pile and the temperature should be just slightly uncomfortable; for water, grab a fistful of material from the inside. When squeezed you should get water drops forming between your fingers (but not dripping). If too dry, add water. If too wet, turn. Turning also ensures air and redistribution of material. Two turns is usually sufficient to obtain usable humus product. This is why many home systems are three-bin systems. Material starts in one bin, and is turned into subsequent bins.

Anaerobic (cold) composting lets nature do all the work. A large pile of material that sits and sits and sits does gradually decompose. When done correctly, anaerobic composting does not smell — anytime a pile begins to smell there is something wrong with the system.

What can and can’t be composted?

Technically, any organic matter can be composted. For most home systems, what works best is yard waste — leaves and grass clippings and twigs and brush, though they will not decompose at the same speed unless chipped. Food waste can be added to these systems. Ideally, the scraps are buried into the pile. Dairy products and any meat products should be avoided as they attract vermin. Pet waste should be avoided as the temperature is not high enough to sterilize the waste. I avoid the seeds of many plants, such as squash, as I don’t maintain a high enough temperature in my pile to adequately denature the proteins so they won’t grow.

What is the importance of composting (environmental, economic), and is it possible in urban areas such as Columbus?

If you have a yard, you can compost. If you have a patio, it depends on your aesthetics. The primary reasons communities support composting are to reduce waste being transported, which is economically and environmentally a big cost, or landfilled. Though yard waste is banned from landfills in Ohio, some gets in because people mix yard waste, especially leaves and grass clippings, with their other garbage. Composting recaptures nutrients close to their source, which is environmentally a closed system. Some other benefits are to the soil itself. With our clay soils, the humus product adds good structure. And, in the autumn, you can use partially composted material for topdressing the plant beds — in the spring, the material is then incorporated into the topsoil.

Peter Mansoor, Department of History

May 4, 2011

What does the death of Osama bin Laden mean to the US?

It’s a huge symbolic victory as it shows that America as a great power will go to extraordinary lengths to avenge the deaths of its citizens. Our promise after 9/11 was Osama bin Laden would pay for his crimes against humanity. His demise sends the message that no matter how long it takes, America will make good on its word.

Osama bin Laden’s death also is a substantive achievement in the war against al-Qaeda. There doesn’t appear to be another leader in al-Qaeda with his charisma and ability to attract followers. The No. 2 al-Qaeda operative, Ayman al-Zawahiri, is a good manager but he doesn’t appear to have the kind of following that could make him a unifying leader of the organization. One of two things could happen at this point: Another leader with the stature of Osama bin Laden could step forward or al-Qaeda could splinter. I think the latter is the more likely possibility.

What happens if al-Qaeda splinters?

The war against al-Qaeda will continue, as bin Laden’s death is just one step in a very long-term and ongoing process. A splintered al-Qaeda may cause a diffusion of our counterterrorism efforts in that not one single person would be the focus of our intelligence.

How would you qualify the success of the intelligence community?

This raid shows that our intelligence capabilities have improved enormously since 9/11. We have finally achieved synergy of effort between the CIA and military that enables these kinds of operations to succeed. The key piece of information that led to bin Laden came out of Guantamano Bay. After 9/11 we captured an al-Qaeda operative who in interrogation indicated there was a courier who bin Laden trusted. We then worked to identify that courier, which finally happened around 2007. We then had to locate him, which happened last fall. In the ensuing interval we refined the targeting package, prepared and rehearsed the mission and continued surveillance on the compound in Pakistan. We had to make sure the targets were at home on the night of the raid. This type of operation is a one-shot deal because if we execute the raid and the targets are not home, we have tipped our hand. Incidentally, after all the discussion over closing Guantanamo Bay, it is ironic the key piece of information came out of that facility.

I think bin Laden’s death was a great achievement for the American intelligence community and the Joint Special Operations Command, and obviously it provided a bit of catharsis to the American people as well. Most Americans realize this isn’t the end of the war against al-Qaeda. However, as Winston Churchill said of another war, “Maybe this is the end of the beginning.”

It also shows that the level of intelligence we enjoy in Pakistan is not all that great that it took us a long time to develop the kind of intelligence we needed to target a single individual. But it also says the Pakistanis weren’t looking that hard for him either, given bin Laden’s compound was 1,000 feet away from a Pakistani military academy. While Osama’s foot soldiers were out in the caves, he was in a luxury compound near the Pakistani capital, so that says something about bin Laden’s leadership.

What does this raid say about our relationship with Pakistan, where bin Laden was killed?

This is a crucial question because we did not coordinate this operation with the Pakistani government. There isn’t a high degree of trust between the United States and Pakistan. Killing or capturing Osama bin Laden was the president’s No. 1 national security goal and he wasn’t going to take a chance someone in the Pakistani military or government would leak details of the raid.

The raid also shows the level of access we enjoy in Pakistan is not all that great as it took us a long time to develop the kind of intelligence we needed to target a single individual. It also shows the Pakistanis weren’t looking all that hard for him either, given that bin Laden’s compound was 1,000 feet away from a Pakistani military academy. Incidentally, while bin Laden’s foot soldiers were out in the hinterlands of Afghanistan and Pakistan, he was holed up in a luxury compound near the Pakistani capital, which says something about his leadership.

How does this raid affect US operations in Afghanistan?

Now that bin Laden is dead, President Obama has an opening to start reducing our troop presence in Afghanistan as he can claim that our primary mission, defeating al-Qaeda, is close to completion. Although US, NATO and Afghan counterinsurgency operations have set back the Taliban, they remain undefeated. It remains to be seen what our strategy will be in Afghanistan going forward, which affects to a great extent what our relationship with Pakistan will be as well.

Peter Shane, Moritz College of Law

April 20, 2011

What is a government shutdown and how does ithappen?

A government shutdown occurs when Congress allows the fiscal year appropriation for one or more agencies to “lapse” — that is, run out — before Congress has appropriated additional funding. Without a new appropriation, the agency has no money to spend and, with limited exceptions, is prohibited by the so-called Antideficiency Act to do anything at all that would obligate Congress to appropriate money in the future.

What are the consequences of a government shutdown?

In 1980, then-Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti concluded that, when fiscal year appropriations lapse, agencies may generally conduct only functions that are authorized by other appropriations, required for the orderly shutdown of the agencies, necessary to enable the president to fulfill his constitutional duties or connected in an immediate way to the safety of human life or the protection of property.

How can this be avoided, as was the recent case with the US government?

Congress could enact all regular appropriations on time — which, to the best of my knowledge, has happened exactly once in the last 30 years. Congress can enact “continuing resolutions,” which are basically short-term stop-gap appropriations. Or Congress could amend the Antideficiency Act to allow agencies — when appropriations lapse — to create obligations in advance of appropriations at whatever rate of spending Congress most recently authorized. This last step would mark a radical departure from our historic checks and balances system.

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